Optimization Of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Biology Essay Essays

Optimization Of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Biology Essay Essays Optimization Of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Biology Essay Essay Optimization Of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction Biology Essay Essay Optimization utilizing response surface methodological analysis for the extractions of phenoplasts from Citrus hystrix foliage was carried out by supercritical fluid extraction. The effects of CO2 rate, extraction force per unit area and extraction temperature on output, entire phenolic content and Diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl-IC50 were evaluated and compared with ethanol extraction. Ethanol infusions and optimal SFE conditions were analysed with HPLC. Among the three variables studied, extraction force per unit area had the most important influence on the output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 of the infusions, followed by CO2 rate and extraction temperature. The optimal conditions of force per unit area, CO2 rate and temperature were at 267 bars, 18 g/min and 50oC, severally. The output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 obtained were 5.06 % , 116.53 milligram GAE/g infusion and IC50 of 0.063 mg/ml, severally. These values were moderately near to their opposite number of predicted ( p gt ; 0.05 ) . Better suppress ion and TPC were obtained utilizing SFE method whereas higher output and phenolic acids were observed with ethanol extraction. The nerve-racking life manner and less balanced nutrient consumption globally partly due to high concentrations of free lipid groups, both in nutrient ( in vitro ) and in vivo after nutrient consumption has given to the demand to look at antioxidants as a functional ingredient in nutrient. Man-made antioxidants such as, butylated hydroxytoluene ( BHT ) , butylated hydroxyanisole ( BHA ) , tertiary- butyl hydro-quanone ( TBHQ ) and propyl gallate ( PG ) , are conventional nutrient antioxidants. Due to safety issues, consumer concerns and increasing regulative examination ( ( Jamilah et al. , 2009 ; Shahidi. , 1997 ) refering man-made antioxidants, the possibility of natural antioxidants as options is sharply researched. The foliages of Citrus hystrix, known locally as, Limau purut, is used in many Malayan and South-East Asiatic part local dishes and medicative readyings. C.hystrix as a possible new beginning of natural antioxidant was reported by Jamilah et Al. ( 1998 ) , Ching and Mo hamed ( 2001 ) , Jaswir et Al. ( 2004 ) , Idris et Al. ( 2008 ) , Chan et Al. ( 2009 ) and Butryee et Al. ( 2009 ) . All infusions were extracted utilizing the conventional dissolvers such as, ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol, propanone and H2O. To bring forth infusions of high phenolic content and rich in antioxidants from C. hystrix foliages, requires high extraction efficiency influenced by factors such as atom size, extraction methods, solvent type, solvent concentration, solvent-to-solid ratio, extraction temperature, force per unit area and clip ( Banik et al, 2007 ; Lang et al. , 2001 ; Pinelo et al. , 2005 ; Silva et al. , 2007 ) . Steam distillment and organic dissolver extraction utilizing infiltration, maceration and Soxhlet techniques are conventionally used for the extraction of bioactive compounds from works beginnings. They are non efficient and economical and this can be overcome by utilizing the supercritical C dioxide ( SC-CO2 ) procedure ( Bimakr et al. , 2009 ) . Carbon dioxide ( critical temperature, force per unit area and denseness ~ 31.18 oC, 72.0 saloon ; 0.47 gcm-3, severally ) is safe, residue free, non-flammable, in expensive and environmentally- friendly ( Pyo and Oo, 2007 ) . The optimisation of supercritical fluids for the extraction of natural antioxidants and phenolic compounds from the foliages of C.hystrix has non been reported. Hence, this survey was carried out with the aim of optimising the extraction of the antioxidant and phenolic acids from the foliages of C. hystrix utilizing supercritical C dioxide ( SC-CO2 ) fluid extraction by changing and/or repairing known variables associated with the extraction techniques. 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Reagents used Folin-Ciocalteu Reagent ( FCR ) and 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl ( DPPH ) were purchased from Sigma ( St Louis MO USA ) . Carbone dioxide, ( pureness 99.99 % ) , incorporating in a Carbone dioxide dip tubing cylinder, was purchased from Malayan Oxygen ( MOX ) , Malaysia. Absolute ethyl alcohol ( 99.4 % , analytical class ) , the qualifier for SC-CO2 procedure, acetonitrile and methyl alcohol ( HPLC class ) as the nomadic stage for HPLC and phenolic acids criterions ( vanillic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, M-cumeric, trans cinnamic acid, benzoic acid, Gallic acid and sinapic acid ) were purchased from Fisher Scientific Chemical ( Loughborough, England ) . All other chemicals used were either analytical or HPLC class. 2.2 Preparation of Sample The foliages of C. hystrix were obtained from Pasar Borong, a whole sale market at Puchong, Selangor, Malaysia. Upon reaching at the research lab, foliages were sorted, washed under running tap H2O, oven dried at 40A °C for 24h and stored at ambient temperature off from the visible radiation. The dried foliages were land merely before extraction in a liquidizer ( MX-335, Panasonic, Malaysia ) for 10s to bring forth a pulverization with an approximative atom size of 0.5mm ( Bimak et al. , 2009 ) . 2.3 Solvent Extraction The phenolic compounds in the C. hystrix leaves powder were extracted harmonizing to Jamilah et Al. ( 1998 ) with little alterations. The first measure involved soaking the pulverization in 95 % ethyl alcohol for 24h at 50oC at an ethyl alcohol to flick ratio of 10:1 ( v/w ) . The petroleum infusion was so filtered and concentrated by vaporizing at 40oC in the rotary evaporator ( Eyela, A-1000S, Japan ) .When the ethyl alcohol was evaporated off the concentrated infusion was transferred into brown glass bottles, flushed with N and kept at 25oC until usage. The extraction was carried out in triplicate 2.4 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide ( SC-CO2 ) Extraction Supercritical C dioxide ( SC-CO2 ) fluid extraction utilizing the supercritical fluid extractor ( ABRP200, Pittsburgh, PA, USA ) , with a 500 milliliter extractor vas attached, was carried out harmonizing to Bimark et Al. ( 2009 ) with little alterations. The flow rate of CO2 and modifier, extraction temperature, force per unit area and clip were adjusted utilizing ICE package coupled with the supercritical fluid extractor. The liquid CO2 was pressurized and heated to the coveted force per unit area and temperature with the assistance of force per unit area pump ( P-50, Pittsburg, PA, USA ) to make the supercritical province prior to go throughing it into the extraction vas. Absolute ethyl alcohol was used as the qualifier to better the extraction of phenoplasts from C.hystrix foliages and fixed at a flow rate of 3 milliliters / min for all experimental processs. The continuance of the inactive extraction clip was fixed at 30 min, while the dynamic extraction clip was changeless at 9 0 min. Fifty gms of C. hystrix foliages ( pulverization ) was assorted with 150g glass beads ( 2.0 millimeter in diameters ) to systematize the flow rate and the mixture was placed in the extractor vas. The extraction was so performed under assorted experimental conditions as generated by the response surface methodological analysis ( RSM ) design. EtOH was removed from the infusions by vacuity vaporization utilizing a rotary evaporator ( Eyela, A-1000S, Japan ) at 40 A °C. The infusions were collected in the unit of ammunition bottle flask ( warped with aluminum foil to minimise light exposure and therefore oxidization ) and so placed in the oven at 40A °C for 30 min before being transferred into desiccators for concluding changeless weight. Infusions were transferred into brown glass bottles, flashed with N and stored in a deep-freeze of -25A °C until farther analysis. The extractions were carried out in extras. 2.5 Determination of Total Phenolic Content ( TPC ) The entire phenolic content of C.hystrix foliage infusions was determined utilizing the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent harmonizing to the method described by Singletone et Al. ( 1999 ) . An aliquot of the infusion ( 0.5mL ) was put in 0.5mL of Folin reagent, under dim visible radiation before 10mL ( 7 % ) of Na carbonate was added. The mixture was so left in the dark for 60A min. The optical density of the mixture was measured against EtOH ( space ) at 725A nanometers by utilizing a UV-Visible spectrophotometer ( UV-1650PC, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan ) . The standardization equation for Gallic acid, expressed as Gallic acid equivalent ( GAE ) in mg/g infusion, was y = 0.0064x + 0.0093 ( R2 = 0.9972 ) . 2.6 Determination of Free Radical Scavenging Activity Free extremist scavenging activity of C.hystrix foliage infusions was measured harmonizing to the process described by Ramadan et Al. ( 2006 ) with little alterations. A 0.1A milliliter aliquot of toluenic sample solution at different concentrations was added with 0.39A milliliters of fresh toluenic 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl ( DPPH ) solution ( 0.1A millimeter ) . Triplicates were carried out for each concentration. The mixtures were shaken smartly and left in the dark for 60A min and optical density was read against pure methylbenzene ( clean ) at 515A nanometers utilizing a UV-Visible spectrophotometer ( UV-1650PC, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan ) . The free extremist scavenging activity of infusions was calculated as follows: % Inhibition = ( [ Acontrol-Asample ] /Acontrol ) *100 Where AcontrolA =A optical density of the control reaction ( incorporating all reagents except samples ) ; AsampleA =A optical density of the trial compound. Determination of IC50 in this trial was defined as the concentration of the infusion that was able to suppress 50 % of the entire DPPH groups. IC50 of the sample was expressed in mg/mL and calculated through the insertion of additive arrested development analysis ( Brand-Williams et al. , 1995 ) 2.7 Determination of Phenolic acids The phenolic acids of the C.hystrix foliage infusions that were obtained from the optimal SC-CO2 conditions ( optimum of output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 ) were analysed by a high-performance liquid chromatography ( HPLC ) , [ Agilent Technologies 1200 series theoretical account, 76337 Waldbronn, Germany ] equipped with Diode Array Detector ( DAD ) , and sensing at 254nm. The HPLC parametric quantities were modified from Anderson et Al. ( 1983 ) . The column temperature used was 30A °C at a maximal temperature 35A °C and the column used was Crespak RP C18S RP C18 ( 150mm L* 4.6mm ID, JASCO ) . The dissolvers were of HPLC class ( Fisher Scientific Chemical, Loughborough, England ) . All dissolvers were filtered through a cellulose nitrate membrane filters ( 0.45 A µm ) . Flow rate of nomadic stages used were 1.5ml/min for 25 % acetonitrile in formic acid-water ( 0.5:99.5 ) , run isocratically. The infusions were foremost filtered through 0.2 A µm nylon ( NYL ) filter, ( Whatman ) for the remotion of drosss and unwanted compounds. The injection volume used was 20A µL with extras for each of the SC-CO2 optimal conditions and ethanol infusions. The criterions used were vanillic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, M-cumeric, trans cinnamic acid, benzoic acid and sinapic acid ( Fisher Scientific Chemical Loughborough, England ) . Designation and quantification of phenolic acids in the infusions were based on the standard curves of the criterions every bit good as their extremums keeping times. 2.8 Experimental design and statistical analysis Response surface methodological analysis ( RSM ) was used to find the optimal conditions for the output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 in C.hystrix foliage infusions. The experimental design and statistical analysis were carried out utilizing the statistical package ( MINITAB let go of 14 ) . Central composite design was chosen to measure the joint consequence of three independent variables CO2 rate, extraction temperature and force per unit area, coded as X1, X2 and X3, severally. The minimal and maximal values for CO2 rate were set at 15 and 25 g/min, extraction temperature between 40 and 60 oC and force per unit area between 100 and 300 bars. The dependent values were yield, TPC and DPPH-IC50. For optimisation, output and TPC were maximized to accomplish highest values and loswest value for DPPH-IC50. The whole design consisted of 20 combinations including six replicates of the Centre point ( Table 1 ) ( Myers A ; Montgomery, 2002 ) . The ANOVA tabular arraies were generated and the consequence and arrested development coefficients of single linear, quadratic and interaction footings were determined. The significances of all footings in the multinomial were analyzed statistically by calculating the F-value at a chance ( P ) of 0.001, 0.01 or 0.05. The statistically found non-significant ( p gt ; 0.05 ) footings were removed from the initial theoretical accounts and merely important ( p lt ; 0.05 ) factors were involved in the concluding reduced theoretical account. It should be noted that non-significant additive footings were kept in the decreased theoretical account in instances where their quadratic or interaction footings were important ( p lt ; 0.05 ) ( Mirhosseini et al. , 2009 ) . Experimental informations were fitted to the undermentioned 2nd order multinomial theoreti cal account and arrested development coefficients were obtained harmonizing to the generalized second-order multinomial theoretical account proposed for the response surface analysis, given as follows Where I?0, I?i, I?ii, I?ij were arrested development coefficients for intercept, additive, quadratic and interaction footings, severally. Eleven and Xj were coded values of the independent variables, while K equaled to the figure of the tried factors ( k=3 ) . 3. Consequences and Discussion 3.1 Response Surface Methodology ( RSM ) Analysiss 3.1.1 Model Fitness Based on the scopes set for the identified parametric quantities, 20 trails of each parametric quantity, including six replicates of the Centre points that influence Yield, TPC and DPPH-IC50 were selected. In this survey, the lower and upper values for the variables were set at +alpha ( +I ±=1.633 ) and -alpha ( -I ±=1.633 ) and so all the factor degrees were chosen within the bounds that were practical with SFE ( above critical tempHYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_temperature eratureA of 31A °C andA critical pressureA of 72A saloon ) and desirable. The experimental and predicted values for responses under the different combinations of extraction conditions via SC-CO2 extractions were as in Table ( 1 ) . The consequences indicated that output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 obtained, ranged from 0.4- 5 % , 15 128.9 milligram GAE/g infusion and 0.065 0.300 mg/ml, severally. By using multiple arrested development analysis, relationships between the tried parametric quantities and the responses were explained in equations 2, 3, and 4 for output, TPC and DPPH-IC50, severally. The fittingness of response map and experimental information was evaluated from the one-dimensionality, quadratic and arrested development coefficients of independent variables as shown in Table 2. The ANOVA of arrested development theoretical account showed that the theoretical accounts were perceptibly important due to the highly low chance value ( P lt ; 0.001 ) . The coefficient of finding ( R2 ) and significance of deficiency of fittingness was farther evaluated to look into the fittingness and theoretical account adequateness. The R2 equal to the integrity or a†°? 0.8, is desirable. R2 values for the arrested development theoretical account of output, TPC, and DPPH-IC50, were 0.935, 0.95, and 0.96, severally, which were close to 1 ( Table 2 ) . Therefore, bespeaking that t he predicted 2nd order multinomial theoretical accounts fitted good with the system. The values of adjusted R2 ( corrected value for R2 after the riddance of the unneeded theoretical account footings ) of output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 were besides really high, therefore proposing the high significance of the theoretical account ( 0.897, 0.92 and 0.93 ) . The coincident addition of both R2 and adjusted R2 plus the absence of any deficiency of tantrum ( p gt ; 0.05 ) in our information has proved its credibleness and theoretical account adequateness. The multiple arrested development consequences and the significance of arrested development coefficients yield, TPC and DPPH-IC50 theoretical accounts were as shown in Table 3. It could be observed that both the linear and quadratic term of all parametric quantities significantly ( p lt ; 0.05 ) effected the output, TPC and DPPH -IC50, nevertheless, CO2 rate did non significantly impact the DPPH-IC50 where temperature consequence on TPC was merely important in quadratic mode to stay in the theoretical account ( Table 3 ) . The undermentioned arrested development equations showed the concluding reduced theoretical accounts fitted for the parametric quantities and their responses. Yield= 3.33 + 0.142 X1 + 0.164X2 + 0.00735X3- 0.00669X12 0.00218 X22 0.000025 X32 Eq ( 2 ) TPC = 909 + 25.4 X1 + 25.6 X2 + 1.54 X3 0.668 X12 0.250 X22- 0.00278 X32 Eq ( 3 ) DPPH-IC50= 0.604 X2 0.0177 X3 + 0.00559 X22 + 0.000031 X32 Eq ( 4 ) 3.1.2 Verification of theoretical accounts The rightness of the response surface equation was tested by the rating of experimental and predicted values from the reduced response arrested development theoretical accounts. A close understanding between the experimental and predicted values ( Table1 ) was noted. No important ( p gt ; 0.05 ) difference was observed between those values, proposing the equal fittingness of the response equations. 3.2 Influence of Pressure, CO2 Rate and Temperature on SC-CO2 Extraction efficiency Figure 1 ( a ) showed the 3-dimensional response surface secret plans by showing the response in the map of two factors and maintaining the temperature at its in-between degree ( 50oC ) . It showed a higher output in the part of extraction force per unit area between 190 to 300 bars and at CO2 rate of 12 to 17g/min. Both extraction force per unit area and CO2 rate exhibited important additive and quadratic effects on output as shown Table ( 3 ) . The output was optimum at approximately 14.8g / min CO2 flow rate and at force per unit area of 320 bars. Eextraction force per unit area was more influential than CO2 rate as reflected by its higher linear and quadratic coefficients ( I?3=0.65819 ; I?33 = -0.25168 ) compared to the latter ( I?1= -0.35060 ; I?11=-0.16731 ) . In supercritical fluid extraction ( SFE ) , increased force per unit areas consequence in, increased solvent denseness and solvent power of fluid which may take to higher extraction outputs, on the other manus, increased pure CO2 rate under SFE is a good dissolver for lipotropic compounds ( non- polar ) but is hapless for phenoplasts ( polar ) ( Martinez, 2007 ) . Therefore, modifier ( ethyl alcohol ) was used to better the extraction of phenoplasts from C.hystrix foliages. Figure 1 ( B ) showed the effects of extraction force per unit area and extraction temperature on output at changeless CO2 rate of 20 g/min. Extraction force per unit area displayed a really important ( p lt ; 0.001 ) on the output in additive and quadratic mode as besides shown in Table ( 3 ) . At force per unit area of a†°?140 and temperature non transcending 47oC output increased, nevertheless with farther addition in the temperature the output showed a lessening which is most likely due to the reduced denseness of CO2. The relationship of CO2 rate and extraction temperature with output was plotted in Figure 1 ( degree Celsius ) . Both the parametric quantities exhibited important additive and quadratic consequence ( P lt ; 0.05 ) on output. The output increased quickly with diminishing CO2 rate up to 13 g/m and this followed by a little lessening thenceforth. By uniting all the consequences presented in Figure 1, it was obvious that extraction force per unit area had the most critical impact on output of the infusion followed by CO2 rate and extraction temperature. 3.3 Entire Phenolic Content ( TPC ) The TPC of the infusion was as shown in Figure 2. Depending on the force per unit area, temperature and CO2 rate, the TPC of the infusion ranged from 15.0 to 128.9 milligrams GAE/g infusion. No available literature study could be be used for comparing for the SC-CO2 extraction method ; nevertheless, Idris et Al. ( 2008 ) reported that TPC of the infusions was about 103.2 milligrams GAE/g infusion which was somewhat lower than our EtOH extracted TPC ( 112.7 milligram GAE per g infusion ) . Moderate degrees of the selected independent variables of SC-CO2 infusions ( run order 7, 10, 12, and 17, Table 1 ) reflected higher TPC of the C.hystrix foliage infusions than our EtOH extraction every bit good as Idris s ; this may hold something to make with possible partial debasement of the extracted compounds due to long extraction clip when conventional extraction methods are to be used. With SC-CO2 method the extraction clip ( 90 min ) was unusually shorter than that of EtOH extraction ( gt ; 20 H ) . 3.4 Free Radical Scavenging Activity Figure 3 demonstrated the consequence of temperature and force per unit area on the scavenging belongings of the C.hystrix leave infusions. The antioxidant activity of the infusions, determined by the IC50 of extremist scavenging belongingss of diphenylpicrylhydrazyl ( DPPH-IC50 ) , was found to be high at mean degree of temperature and comparatively increased phases of force per unit area i.e. DPPH-IC50 of the infusions bit by bit decreased with the addition of extraction temperature and force per unit area up to 50 A °C and 314 bars, severally to accomplish optimal value of IC50 at 0.0585 before it began to increase. The lesser the IC50, the stronger activity is the corresponding affair ( Mariod et al. , 2010 ) . Under the assay conditions employed here, the IC50 of BHA and I ±-tocopherol as a positive controls were 0.023mg/ml and 0.031mg/ml, severally, among the infusion run order 12, 9, and 16 ( table 1 ) possessed greater DPPH extremist scavenging activities with the lower I C50 values of 0.065, 0.08 and 0.085mg/ml, severally. This was in understanding to the findings of Idriss et Al. ( 2008 ) , where the activity of BHA was found to be higher than the sample. Compared to conventional solvent extraction method with the IC50 of 0.250 mg/ml ( Table 1 ) , it can be observed that SC-CO2 infusions demonstrated noteworthy DPPH radical-scavenging activity unusually greater than that of traditional extraction method. The IC50 values for CLE extracted by SC-CO2 ranged from 0.065 0.300 mg/ml depending on force per unit area and temperature where an addition in the force per unit area comparatively resulted in an addition in its antioxidant capacity. 3.5 Identification and Quantification of Phenolic Acids of the infusions. Out of seven standard phenolic acid solutions assorted, six have been detected in dissolver and supercritical C dioxide extraction of the infusions ( table 4 ) . By quantifying the sum of phenolic acids in the infusion, a considerable fluctuation between EtOH and SC-CO2 extraction was observed. Higher recovery of phenolic acids than that of SC-CO2 extraction was found utilizing 95 % EtOH as shown in Table ( 4 ) . The figure of polar map groups, e.g. hydroxyl groups, may hold influenced volatility of the solutes therefore finding their optimal extractability with SC-CO2 ( Lang and Wai, 2001 ) . For illustration, ( Stahl and Glatz, 1984 ) successfully extracted steroids with three hydroxyl groups below 300 bars but failed to pull out those steroids dwelling of four hydroxyl groups, or three hydroxyls and one acid group, or one phenolic hydroxyl with two other hydroxyl groups. Despite the difference in measure, the type of phenolic acids bing in the infusions for both EtOH and SC-CO2 ex traction methods remained changeless. Trans-cinnamic, M-coumeric and Vanillic acids represented as the prevailing phenolic acids, while P-coumeric, Benzoic and sinapic acids reasonably existed in the infusions ( Table 4 ) . 3.6 Decision The optimal conditions of force per unit area at 265 bars, temperature at 50oC and CO2 rate at 18 g/min was needed for higher SC-CO2 extraction of output, TPC and DPPH-IC50 of C.hystrix leave infusions. Of the three independent variables studied, extraction force per unit area was the most important factor act uponing on output, TPC and DPPH-IC50, flowed by CO2 rate and extraction temperature. Higher sums of output and phenolic acids than SC-CO2, was found in solvent extraction. Nevertheless, SC-CO2 extracts exhibited high quality in antioxidant activity measured by IC50 of 1,1-Diphenyl-picrylhydrazylA ( DPPH ) and entire phenolic content ( TPC ) . Even though some good consequences was achieved with the traditional EtOH extraction, supercritical CO2 extraction showed faster and better extraction of C.hystrix foliages. Therefore, the green engineering, reclaimable CO2 could be an alternate method of extraction for superior antioxidants from C.hystrix foliages. Recognition The writers appreciate and thankful for the fiscal support received from the RMC, the University Putra Malaysia for this survey.

Essay on The Genesis of self and social control

Essay on The Genesis of self and social control Essay on The Genesis of self and social control Essay on The Genesis of self and social controlThe issue about the nature and role of individual identity has been widely discussed by sociologists. According to Robert Brym and John Lie (2009), the connection between the individual identity and the larger society is a â€Å"focus† for many sociologists, including George Herbert Mead and Erving Goffman (p. 13).   Both sociologists were focused on the study of individual identity, placing emphasis on the role of interaction with other people. The studies of George Herbert Mead and Erving Goffman contributed to the development of symbolic interactionism as their views have very much in common (Burkitt, 1991).   However, there are certain differences between George Herbert Mead’s and Erving Goffman’s interpretations of the constitution and reproduction of individual identity. From sociological perspective, the concept of individual identity refers to the study of the relationships between individual behaviors an d collectivity. The ideas of George Herbert Mead and Erving Goffman regarding individual identity are influential in shaping the model of individual identity. According to Richard Jenkins (2014), â€Å"individual identity embodied in selfhood – is not a meaningful proposition in isolation from the human world of other people†(p. 42). Both Mead and Goffman make efforts to interpret the constitution and reproduction of individual identity, but they do it in different ways.The major goal of this paper is to compare and contrast George Herbert Mead’s and Erving Goffman’s interpretations of the constitution and reproduction of individual identity. Besides, it is necessary to define whether one of these approaches to individual identity superior to the other.George Herbert Mead’s interpretations of the constitutionand reproduction of individual identityGeorge Herbert Mead’s interpretation of the constitution and reproduction of individual identit y is based on psychological approach to the study of the role of interaction with other people. As the sociologist, Mead is interested in the study of identity, placing emphasis on its development in social context. He states that identity is part of the individual’s character (Mead, 1925; Goffman, 1971).Actually, George Herbert Mead’s original and groundbreaking conception of the interrelationship of self and society is influential. Mead’s understanding of the self reflects the role of the intersubjective character of social action (Jenkins, 2014). He explores various issues regarding the construction of individual identity, including how an individual’s sense of identity can be derived from the relationship of the self to the other (Burkitt, 1991).   In other words, Mead believes that through an individual’s interaction, it is possible to arrive at a sense of identity (Mead, 1925; Brym Lie, 2009). One’s own individual identity can be ac hieved through the application of general conception of society.In addition, Mead introduces a number of different categories and dichotomies, which help to better understand the nature of self and society. Mead’s interpretation of intersubjectivity is one of the most important issues in the field. In his works, Mead’s ideas are connected with the desire to have an understanding of life â€Å"as a process and not a series of static physicochemical situations† (Mead, 1925, p. 251). Mead rejects the use of metaphysical explanations regarding life processes. He is focused on subjective explanation of life, placing emphasis on the understanding of self as the product of the so-called social act. According to Mead (1925), â€Å"selves exist only in relation to other selves†(p. 278). This fact means that selves depend on others, and they cannot exist without a community of other individuals. The major argument made by Mead is that the social refers to the form of generalization of others, influencing the development of one’s own individual identity, which implies that â€Å"the mind is itself intersubjectively constituted† (Mead, 1925).According to Mead, individual identity can be described as the product of human communication that provides certain roles to individuals. Actually, the concept of the role forms the basis of his study of identity. Mead was a philosopher and psychologist; therefore, his view of individual identity is based on some philosophical thinking. He managed to create a â€Å"theory of the social origin of human selves† (Goffman, E.1971, p.28). According to Mead, it is impossible to separate the theory of human behavior from the theory of the mind. He developed the concept of social behaviorism to emphasize the role of individual identity and behavior in social interaction.For Mead, the concept of â€Å"the self† is connected with symbolic experience of individuals (Mead, 1934). Mead believ es that reality is established in the process of human interaction. He writes,Symbolization constitutes objects not constituted before, objects that would not exist except for the context of social relationships wherein symbolization occurs. Language does not simply symbolize a situation or object which is already there in advance; it makes possible the existence or appearance of that situation or object, for it is a part of the mechanism whereby that situation or object is created (Mead, 1934, p. 78).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mead believes that individual identity influences the mind to make people interact with one another. The mind becomes a tool used to promoted active participation in the community activities (Mead, 1934).Erving Goffman’s interpretations of the constitutionand reproduction of individual identityErving Goffman’s interpretation of the constitution and reproduction of individual identity is based on different aspects of individualà ¢â‚¬â„¢s personality. Goffman states that there are different meanings of the term â€Å"identity†. He defines three meanings: â€Å"social identity†, â€Å"personal identity† and â€Å"ego identity† (qtd. in Manning, 1992, p. 98). Goffman’s interpretation of identity is based on the connection between social identity and individual identity. Together, social identity and individual identity reflect some significant aspects of self, which are â€Å"socially in play with others, affecting them and affected by them† (Burns, p. 26). Goffman’s works are developed to highlight the role of individual identity in social development. He gives explanation to the self in order to effectively manage social interaction. Yet, the understanding of Goffman’s ideas leads to the underestimation of the complexity of the theoretical perspective developed by him. Goffman discusses the peculiarities of performing social interaction and the ways to sustain social order (Goffman, 1970; Goffman, 1967). According to Burkitt (1991), â€Å"Goffman refuses to broach the question of which is the most real, the presentational front or the self of the actor who is behind it†(p.70). In his theoretical approach to the study of individual identity, he is focused on two selves: â€Å"the self who is a mask and the residual self that it hides† (Burkitt, 1991, p. 70).In addition, Goffman discusses the nature of the concept of embarrassment that can be characterized as an individual’s possibility to participate in face-to-face interaction. It may occur â€Å"whenever an individual is felt to have projected incompatible definition of himself before those present† (Goffman, 1967, p. 97). Actually, these projections occur in certain social environment where incompatible principles of social interaction are prevalent. In case of the conflict between these principles, embarrassment performs its social function. Social e ncounter is based on face-to-face interaction. Social construction of the self is associated with social encounter.In general, Goffman states that each self is socially constructed and requires the appropriate social interaction. He helps to assess the role of an individual’s ability to influence the formation of individual identity under social conditions, which not only shape human actions, but also limit them (Burns, 2002). The self that has been constructed in social interaction is active, aimed at realization of one’s own plans and desires (Goffman, 1967; Burns, 2002).The key similarities and differences between George Herbert Mead’s and Erving Goffman’s interpretations of the constitution and reproduction of individual identityLike Mead, Goffman provided many different categories, which are still applied to the field of sociology. He explores the significance of the rituals of social interaction and reveals the key dimensions of the self. The consti tution of identity, according to Goffman, is connected with the presentation of self with little real substance. Mead’s approach places emphasis on the role of social interaction in the construction of the self.However, Goffman has developed the idea of the concept of identity more systematically. According to Goffman, every individual faces considerable problems in his/her life that require modeling one’s self and making it perceptible to others (Goffman, 1970).   The works of Goffman have direct relation to symbolic interactionism. As the major characteristic of symbolic interactionism is the use of symbols, such as language, in human interaction in order to develop socially constructed reality, Goffman’s views regarding the role of individual identity and its constitution are relevant. Similar to Mead’s approach, Goffman refers to the significance of social intercourse. In general, from the symbolic interactionist perspective, socialization influence s individual identity. Due to the interaction of the self and society, it is possible to perceive social meanings, reinterpret them and give adequate response (Burkitt, 1991).   In other words, socialization can be defined as the continual formation of individual identity over time. According to Goffman (1971),â€Å"role is the basic unit of socialization† (p.105). Due to roles, individuals have an opportunity to perform concrete tasks in society and achieve success. Besides, roles help to highlight the qualities of individuals, their self-image and responses of others.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In fact, the theories of Mead and Goffman help to better understand the impact of identity on social interaction and assess the effectiveness of symbolic interactionism.   Goffman is focused on subjectivity of social life. He compares social interaction to different elements of social life, including â€Å"a carefully staged play†, â€Å"defined rolesâ₠¬  and other elements that influence interaction. Social life can be viewed as real-life drama, in which each individual performs its role. As a result, it is impossible to separate an individual’s identity from an individual’s performance. He writes,A correctly staged and performed character leads the audience to impute a self to a performed character, but his imputation – this self – is a product of a scene that comes off and is not a cause of it. The self, then, as a performed character, is not an organic unit that has a specific location †¦it is a dramatic effect arising diffusely from a scene that is presented (Goffman,1971, p.23)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Goffman characterizes identity as â€Å"a dramatic effect† because it equates the self and the mind. The self can be viewed as an effect, if identity is performed. In other words, the self becomes the major source of a wide range of activities performed by individuals , as well as their beliefs and ideas. Goffman considers that the capabilities of individual identities play a significant role in the realization of social performance. These views are not connected with Mead’s theory of the self. According to researchers, Goffman’s dramaturgical theory regarding the role of the self and identity differs from Mead’s views in the field of social psychology (Manning, 1992; Mead, 1925).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In contrast to Goffman’s views, Mead provides an opportunity to see the distinction between the two parts of â€Å"the self† – the â€Å"I†, which characterizes immediate consciousness, and the â€Å"me†, which defines the product of performance or interaction of an individual (Mead, 1925). This fact means that Mead’s explanation of â€Å"the self† is taken from the practical action of an individual and social interaction (Brym, Lie, 2009; Manning, 1992).Co nclusion  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thus, it is necessary to conclude that George Herbert Mead’s and Erving Goffman’s interpretations of the constitution and reproduction of individual identity have very much in common, but, at the same time, there are certain differences between them. One of these approaches to individual identity is superior to the other. Goffman’s approach provides more systematic understanding of the presentation of one’s individual identity in social interaction.   The sociological concept of identity, according to both Mead and Goffman, was established as individual characteristic combined with social interaction. The self can be viewed as an individual’s identity. Goffman’s ideas highlight the significance of cooperation between individuals. Goffman’s approach is more influential than Mead’s approach, although Goffman explored some themes developed by Mead in his works. In general, two theorists Mead and Goffman contributed to the study of sociology that has a strong impact on the way sociology as a science is represented now.   Their works share some similarities regarding the construction of identity.

Critical Communication Event on the Internet Essay

Critical Communication Event on the Internet - Essay Example The responsibility of the press to relay messages in such incidences was seen to come out very clearly. The public seemed to be very aware of the happenings at that particular time. The media did not assume its role in concealing information but portrayed the information to the mass just as the events unfold. The issue of size policy in relation to the Southwest Airlines came out clearly. With the news, the customers were much enlightened on who they would be dealing with the next time they use the Southwest airlines. With the freedom of the press, many journalists attempted to conduct interview with Emery Orto to have a clear understanding on the views regarding to the issue. From the journalists’, judgment on various online articles, Orto seemed to have an irrational attitude and his communication with the authorities was not at all pleasant. Not only was it his size barred him from flying but his rude approach on the authorities. With the freedom of the press, each and every person is given an opportunity to air their views, in our case study, the huge person, Orto, and the refusal to board on the plane by the Southwest Airlines